Some time back, a college friend from San Diego embarked on a 3-week road trip spanning the US and Canada, with just 1-2 days in each city on his meticulously planned itinerary. What made this jam-packed tour possible, he explained, was his Tesla Model 3 equipped with the Full Self-Driving (FSD) software. When he reached Boston (a staggering 3,000 miles away from San Diego) to see me, he told me that the feature allowed him to recline his seat during long interstate stretches while the vehicle maintained speed, changed lanes, and followed navigation instructions autonomously. Apparently, the system would also notify him when manual intervention was needed, such as at complex interchanges or in construction zones. Our conversation left me wondering: with the massive expansion in the expressway and road network in India, why aren't such features commonplace on Indian roads or highways yet? This question got me to explore the divergent paths of mobility innovation in these two distinct environments, revealing both formidable challenges and promising opportunities.

The Autonomous Revolution: How Far Has the US Really Come?

The US currently leads the global autonomous vehicle race, though the reality might not match the hype. Tesla's Autopilot system, despite its ambitious name, remains a Level 2 (L2) automation technology according to the Levels 1-5 SAE classification system on how ‘autonomous’ a vehicle is. L2 means it provides partial automation requiring continuous driver supervision—not the fully autonomous experience many envision. Tesla combines features like Autosteer (which helps maintain lane position) and Traffic-Aware Cruise Control, with enhanced capabilities including Navigate on Autopilot, which handles highway driving from on-ramp to off-ramp, making lane changes as needed.

Beyond Tesla, companies like Waymo have made significant strides in developing more advanced autonomous systems. Waymo recently began testing fully autonomous vehicles on San Francisco freeways without safety drivers, representing a major milestone in the journey toward L4 automation. Their technology utilizes a comprehensive sensor suite including lidar, radar, and cameras, alongside sophisticated AI algorithms that can identify and track objects around the vehicle while predicting their movements in real-time.

The technical hurdles to achieving widespread autonomous driving remain substantial. While achieving 90% accuracy in autonomous driving systems is relatively straightforward in controlled environments, pushing beyond 99% reliability in the unpredictable real world presents enormous challenges. Engineers must solve problems around sensor fusion (combining data from multiple sensors), machine learning algorithm refinement, edge case handling (rare but critical scenarios), and connectivity issues. These challenges explain why most commercially available systems remain at L2, despite years of optimistic predictions about fully autonomous vehicles.

The commercial sector faces its own set of obstacles. TuSimple, an autonomous trucking company, experienced a setback in April 2022 when one of its trucks crashed into a concrete barrier. While the company maintained that the L4 autonomous driving system was not operational at the time of the incident, attributing it to human error during system initialization, the event highlighted the complexity of operationalizing this tech safely. Such incidents have prompted increased regulatory scrutiny, with multiple states now considering legislation specifically addressing autonomous trucks. For instance, Arizona and Colorado have introduced bills requiring human safety operators in autonomous commercial vehicles.

India’s Unique Autonomous Vehicle Landscape: ‘Roadblocks’ and Opportunities

Implementing autonomous vehicle technology in India presents distinctive challenges that go beyond those faced in more structured driving environments. India's road infrastructure, characterized by unpredictable traffic patterns, diverse vehicle types, and often unmarked lanes, creates a particularly demanding testing ground for autonomous systems. As one industry expert noted in an Ipsos Business Consulting Report, "India's notoriously bad traffic, (which) poses serious technical challenges when it comes to developing algorithms for operating autonomous cars."

The heterogeneous traffic environment in India—where cars, motorcycles, auto-rickshaws, buses, and even animals share the road—creates an infinitely more complex set of scenarios for AI systems to interpret and navigate. It’s no secret that ML algorithms trained primarily on Western driving conditions are not built to adapt to India's unique road culture, where formal traffic rules may even be less practically significant than informal, context-dependent behaviors, such as communication by honking!

Data collection presents another significant hurdle. According to the same Ipsos report above, reliable traffic data is scarce in India, making it difficult to develop and train robust autonomous driving systems. A lack of comprehensive, high-quality data reflecting India's specific driving conditions will continually remain a challenge for appropriate context-aware algorithms.

Nevertheless, there are promising developments on the horizon. India's expanding network of expressways and highways, built to international standards, could serve as initial corridors for introducing limited autonomous features. The 8-lane Delhi-Mumbai Expressway, Yamuna Expressway, and other similar infrastructure projects can provide more controlled environments where early autonomous technologies might find practical application. Bhopal-based Swaayatt Robots has made remarkable progress with its camera-only approach to autonomous driving, even claiming to have achieved L5 autonomy with a modified Mahindra Bolero. Similarly, Minus Zero has launched India's first fully autonomous vehicle called zPod, and has partnered with truck manufacturer Ashok Leyland to deploy highway-focused autonomous technology in coming years.

Electric Mobility: Divergent Paths in the US and India

While autonomous technology continues to evolve, electric vehicles have made significant inroads in both markets, albeit following different trajectories. India's EV market stands at an inflection point, with electric vehicles accounting for approximately 5% of total vehicle sales between October 2022 and September 2023. This figure could surge to more than 40% by 2030, driven particularly by strong adoption in the 2 and 3 wheeler segments.

In 2025, India's production of battery-powered passenger vehicles is projected to increase by an impressive 140.2% year-over-year to approximately 301,400 units, representing about 6% of the country's estimated total passenger vehicle production. This growth has been catalyzed by government initiatives such as the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles (FAME) scheme and Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) program, which aim to boost domestic manufacturing and adoption.

The Indian EV market has fostered a diverse ecosystem of local manufacturers catering to various segments. Companies like Tata Motors have emerged as one of the leaders in the passenger EV segment with popular models like the Nexon EV and Tigor EV, which in my personal experience are extensively used by Cab drivers in the National Capital Region (NCR). In the 2-wheeler space, companies such as Hero Electric, Ather Energy, and TVS Motor have developed products specifically tailored to Indian conditions and price points. Mahindra Electric has especially focused on commercial applications, particularly three-wheelers for last-mile connectivity.

However, infrastructure challenges continue to impede wider adoption. Unlike the structured charging network in the US, India's charging infrastructure on the macro remains fragmented and underdeveloped. For context, India has approximately 200 EVs per commercial charging point, compared to about 20 in the US and fewer than 10 in China.Recent concerns about EV charging safety have emerged, with Mumbai considering banning EVs from charging in automated parking spots, puzzle parking, and basement parking due to fire incidents.

The economics of EV ownership in India present a mixed picture. While the total cost of ownership can be lower for electric vehicles in the long run, the higher initial purchase price remains a significant barrier. Electric vehicles in India are typically priced 20% to 30% above their internal combustion engine (ICE) counterparts. I’ve also anecdotally heard from Cab drivers in NCR that they haven’t been able to financially justify their EV purchase in terms of the existing limitations around sparse charging infrastructure, 20-30+ minute charge times (not including wait times) and the associated delta with completing fewer rides over a long period.

The State of Automotive Technology in India: What's Available and What's Missing

The disparity between available vehicle technologies in the US and India is substantial, particularly in the realm of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS). While US consumers can access vehicles with L2 autonomous features from numerous manufacturers, Indian consumers have far fewer options. Most vehicles sold in India lack even basic ADAS features like Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) or lane-keeping assistance, which have become relatively commonplace in the US market.

However, the landscape is gradually evolving. Luxury manufacturers like Mercedes-Benz and BMW have introduced limited ADAS features in their high-end models sold in India. For the mass market, MG Motor has brought ADAS L2 features to the Indian market with its Astor and Gloster models. Mahindra has also introduced ADAS features in its XUV700, including ACC, lane keep assist, and automatic emergency braking.

In the EV space, however, options have expanded significantly in recent years. Tata Motors’ Nexon EV and Tigor EV models, Mahindra's eVerito sedan and eKUV100, Hyundai’s Kona Electric, and MG (with the ZS EV) offer a wide range of options across performance, range, and affordability.

The 2-wheeler segment has seen particularly robust EV adoption (albeit manufacturing and customer support issues in certain products), with companies like Hero Electric, Ather Energy, TVS etc developing products specifically for Indian conditions. These vehicles often incorporate smart features like app connectivity, remote diagnostics, and over-the-air updates in more affordable segments.

Accelerating the Mobility Transition: Low-Hanging Fruits for India

Electric three-wheelers, particularly e-rickshaws, represent one of the most promising opportunities for accelerating EV adoption in India. These vehicles have been described as a "low hanging fruit" due to their "unparalleled relevance" in providing first and last-mile connectivity in urban areas. With lower operating costs and simpler mechanical components than their ICE counterparts, e-rickshaws offer a compelling economic proposition for operators while addressing critical transportation needs in cities.

For the personal transportation segment, prioritizing the development of a reliable, accessible charging infrastructure is essential. This includes not only increasing the number of charging points but also ensuring their proper maintenance and operational reliability. Strategic placement of fast-charging stations along major highways could significantly reduce range anxiety for intercity travel, one of the primary concerns for potential EV buyers.

India's distinctive mobility patterns offer unique opportunities for innovation. The high proportion of 2-wheeler usage makes this segment particularly promising for electrification. With their lower battery requirements and simpler technical specs compared to 4-wheelers, electric 2-wheelers can more readily achieve price parity with conventional models. Industry-government collaboration to develop standardized, swappable battery systems could revolutionize this space, allowing users to exchange depleted batteries for charged ones at convenient locations, eliminating waiting times for charging.

For commercial applications, fleet operators present a promising target for EV adoption due to their predictable routes and usage patterns. Government incentives specifically targeting commercial EV fleets, coupled with partnerships between fleet operators and charging infrastructure providers, could create viable ecosystems for electric logistics and transportation services.

In terms of autonomous technology, India could instead take a more incremental approach, initially focusing on implementing L1 and L2 features that enhance safety without requiring major infrastructure overhauls. Features like automatic emergency braking, lane departure warning, and ACC could save lives on Indian roads while establishing the foundation for more advanced systems in the future.

The ‘Road’ Ahead: Converging Paths and Divergent Solutions

The mobility landscapes of the US and India reflect their distinct infrastructural, economic, and cultural contexts, suggesting that the paths toward future mobility will necessarily differ while sharing common technological foundations. For India, leapfrogging directly to L4 or L5 autonomous vehicles seems unlikely in the near term. Instead, a more practical approach would involve gradual implementation of increasingly sophisticated driver assistance features, beginning with controlled environments like highways and expressways before expanding to more complex urban settings.

Electric mobility, on the other hand, presents immediate opportunities across multiple vehicle segments. India's pricing sensitivity and unique usage patterns have already spawned innovative approaches, from battery swapping for two-wheelers to purpose-built commercial electric vehicles. The continued expansion of India's renewable energy capacity further enhances the environmental benefits of electrification, potentially allowing the country to avoid the high-carbon transition phase that characterized automotive evolution in many Western nations.

As these technologies mature, regulatory frameworks must evolve in parallel as these are interconnected. Proactive policy development addressing questions of liability, data privacy, technical standards, and safety protocols for both electric and autonomous vehicles will be crucial in creating an environment conducive to innovation while ensuring public safety and confidence.

The journey toward advanced mobility in India will undoubtedly follow its own unique trajectory, one that reflects the country's particular needs, constraints, and opportunities. By focusing on pragmatic, contextually appropriate solutions rather than simply importing approaches developed for different environments, India has the potential to develop mobility systems that are not only technologically advanced but also uniquely suited to its diverse and dynamic transportation ecosystem. The road to tomorrow's mobility may look different in New Delhi than in New York, but the destination—safer, cleaner, more efficient transportation—remains the same.